Peter I (Peter the Great) ruled Russia from 1682 to 1725 and oversaw a comprehensive transformation that modernized the state, its military, and its society. This biography examines his early life, political rise, governing style, reforms, wars, controversies, and lasting legacy.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) was a Dutch tradesman who pioneered microscopy and became the first to observe and describe microorganisms, laying the foundations of microbiology.
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) was an English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer whose laws of motion and universal gravitation reshaped science, and whose development of calculus provided a new language for analysis.